Short arguments : some general rules: Identify premises and conclusion ; Develop your ideas in a natural order ; Start from reliable premises ; Be concrete and concise ; Build on substance, not overtone ; Use consistent terms
Generalizations: Use more than one example ; Use representative examples ; Background rates may be crucial ; Statistics need a critical eye ; Consider counterexamples
Arguments by analogy: Analogies require relevantly similar examples
Sources: Cite your sources ; Seek informed sources ; Seek impartial sources ; Cross-check sources ; Use the Web with care
Arguments about causes: Causal arguments start with correlations ; Correlations may have alternative explanations ; Work toward the most likely explanation ; Expect complexity
Deductive arguments: Modus ponens ; Modus tollens ; Hypothetical syllogism ; Disjunctive syllogism ; Dilemma ; Reductio ad absurdum ; Deductive arguments in several steps
Extended arguments: Explore the issue ; Spell out basic ideas as arguments ; Defend basic premises with arguments of their own ; Consider objections ; Consider alternatives
Argumentative essays: Jump right in ; Make a definite claim or proposal ; Your argument is your outline ; Detail objections and meet them ; Get feedback and use it ; Modesty, please!
Oral arguments: Reach out to your audience ; Be fully present ; Signpost your argument ; Offer something positive ; Use visual aids sparingly ; End in style
Appendix I: Some common fallacies
Appendix II: Definitions: When terms are unclear, get specific ; When terms are contested, work from the clear cases ; Definitions don't replace arguments.
